Positionality
Scrolling through the earliest logs of my email weeks earlier, I noticed an email from my dad timestamped February 9, 2016, from when I was just 9 years old. Included inside was an image of the Pale Blue Dot, a photograph captured from the Voyager 1 space probe 6 billion kilometers away from the place we call home, and a written excerpt from astronomer Carl Sagan:
“Our posturings, our imagined self-importance, the delusion that we have some privileged position in the universe, are challenged by this point of pale light. Our planet is a lonely speck in the great enveloping cosmic dark…” – Carl Sagan.
I think that moment was one where even my 9 year old mind, preoccupied as I was by whatever it is that occupies a 9 year old’s mind, thought about what it really meant to exist on Earth—accompanied by all people yet universally alone in the greatest sense—about how and why to live, and the fundamental nature of our lives. This Spring I enrolled in Phillips Academy’s Existentialism elective, and with the explorations of writings by the likes of Jean-Paul Sartre, Søren Kierkegaard, and Arthur Schopenhaur paired with our investigations into the various aspects in our American History class, the notion for this paper was conceived.
While existentialism as a philosophical movement is one historically dominated by European male thinkers, the contemplation and examination of how the posing of questions that are existentialist in nature impacts us all. Distilled to its core, these questions accompany us until the very end of our existence, perhaps beyond, and their answers are the guiding lens with which we let our lives run their course. The choice of how to answer is up to you entirely.
Acknowledgements
To my sister, whose joy and curiosity inspire me to the greatest extent, you exemplify why the future is so bright. Eternal gratitude and thanks to my mom, for teaching me how to ask questions, and my dad for leading me on the journey to learn how to answer, your impossible magic keeps the world on its axis. Thank you to Mr. Eric Denby for leading the journey of this paper and guiding every step of the way, you paved a path that was daring and exciting. To Dr. Ryan Ravanpak, for the Japanese death poems before each class, for the portals you lead me through, and puzzling me everyday. And to my friends and classmates, from whom I learn constantly, you are each passionate, potent forces. None of this would have been possible without any of you, and my existence is a grateful one thanks to you.
To life, a fickle flame, for burning a spark that is so fierce and filled with excitement, yet inevitably and infinitely momentary.
Existentialism
“If man, as the existentialist conceives him, is indefinable, it is because at first he is nothing. Only afterward will he be something, and he himself will have made what he will be… Life is nothing until it is lived; but it is yours to make sense of and the value of it is nothing else but the sense that you choose.”
– Jean-Paul Sartre, Existentialism is a Humanism
And so we begin…
Why am I here? What does my life mean? How can I live to my fullest even in the face of suffering and certain death? These are questions that have and will continue to remain with us for the rest of eternity. As humans, the very transience of our existence in such a fragile world demands that these ponderings, the asking of these fundamental musings, work as a way for us to grapple with and understand our role in the universe. As America entered the middle of the twentieth century, marking the end of World War II and transitioning into a careful stalemate characterized by the Cold War, so too came a critical shift in the undercurrents of society. World War II had introduced America to previously unheard-of horrors and weapons of mass destruction. Those returning from duty abroad certainly now saw the world much differently than they had before, for they had stood witness to global leaders at the highest stage rationalize and justify unprecedented killing. Oftentimes, they themselves were the ones behind machines that razed and destroyed without differentiation—they had witnessed and touched death at the most intimate level. Many Americans at home were impacted secondarily by the war as well: whether it be their friends or family, or through the countless images and tragedies that headlined newspapers, ripples from World War II were far-reaching and profound. Paired with the sudden confrontation Americans had to new weaponry and technology, the threat of nuclear annihilation— which stemmed from the creation of the atomic bomb during the Cold War—catalyzed a shift in American culture and social attitude. With this newfound grappling with death, questions about fate and destiny paved the path for a new philosophy to sweep in from across the Atlantic Ocean. Despite facing opposition from certain religious groups, the rise of existentialism manifested itself as a philosophical foundation that enabled individuals to better contemplate and ponder self-existence, meaning, and societal norms, emphasizing individual freedom and living authentically and introducing an American era of personal pursuit in the place of more traditional values and norms. Existentialism suffused literature and film from classics by Leo Tolstoy and Franz Kafka to American authors like F. Scott Fitzgerald and Ernest Hemingway, and spread through academic circles and educational pedagogy, which planted the generational seeds of an existentialist emphasis on personal liberties and the critique of traditional structures.
Although the ending of World War II marked in some sense the ending of the struggle that had taken place on the highest stage for six years, the aftermath meant that the battle for personal understanding and the search for how to live had just begun. Amid the neverending tide of battles throughout the war, French thinkers laid the groundwork for what would come to be known as existentialism. Existentialism was a philosophical movement of theorists and writers that flourished towards the late 19th and 20th century, often paralleled to 19th century romanticism, which lays stress on the existence of the human. Introduced first by European thinkers in countries like France and Germany, existentialism is typically focused on the consideration of the individual human life, the inevitability and centrality of suffering in life, and the choices each individual makes. Primary themes of consideration include the importance of the individual, the importance of choice, anxiety regarding life, death, and extreme situations, meaning, absurdity, and authenticity. Oftentimes, these ideas also prompt the consideration of God and religion and their role in personal lives as the individual struggles to define and find their purpose in relation to destiny. Though the tree of existentialism is far-reaching and broad — each branch holds within itself complex and often contrasting theories — one of the foundational theories presented by French philosopher Jean-Paul Sartre World War II introduced the idea that “existence precedes essence.” Existentialist thinkers present the belief that people are not created with some predefined nature or worth, but rather that it is through an individual’s active choices, decisions, and value judgements throughout their life that they forge themselves. Moreover, existentialism affirms that people create themselves virtuously through the pursuit of living authentically — breaking with conventions and established traditions while on the journey for personal conviction towards freedom.
Although the initial origin was primarily Eurocentric, particularly among French thinkers, existentialism made its first forays into America through its introduction to American thinkers and academics by European intellectuals leaving a World War II-stricken Europe. The introduction of existentialism at the time was particularly relevant in America, and the openness and focus on already existential thoughts within Americans following the war set the stage for the proliferation through the public. Especially in contrast to competing philosophical ideas at the time such as rationalism and empiricism, existentialism was uniquely poised due to its close connection to the interests of the American people at the time, a more tangible examination of human experiences in light of the existentialist crisis. The staging for the rising popularity was aided also by the trend of American interest and popular fascination in France, which gave elements of French culture a distinction of “cultural capital,” which was paired with the influence of existentialist thinkers like Jean-Paul Sartre and Albert Camus who were themselves surrounded by a touch of celebrity status, accumulated from delivering lectures and gaining critical acclaim from their writings. In an introduction to one of Sartre’s lectures, translator Bernard Frechtman noted that the American interest in Sartre’s work was one of the “curious phenomena which might…illuminate some of the peculiarities of culture in America,” along with the suggestion that American press and newspapers focused more on Sartre’s personality than his philosophies, with an issue of The Atlantic Monthly published in December 1944 describing Sartre incorrectly as “one of the military leaders” of the French resistance during the war.
Sartre and Simone de Beauvoir, commonly thought as two of the pioneers of existentialism, played upon their personality and celebrity-like roles as philosophers to gain wider popular attention in America. This was spurred in part by the targeted publishing of philosophical works by the likes of Sartre and Beauvoir in earlier years in fashion magazines in addition to the typical academic and intellectual circles. An issue of Vogue, a leading fashion magazine, published Sartre’s piece “New Writing in France,” with Vogue evoking the powerful description of Sartre himself being “like the men in the barricades in the pictures of the French insurrection.” Historian George Cotkin noted this interaction between existentialism and fashion, highlighting the connection that existentialism found, both in content and in presentation, was one that appealed and quickly found its place into the hot American culture. The unanswered musings and abstract wonderings of the time prepared a culturally cushioned landing pad that allowed existentialism to launch off once it entered America.
American universities became a hotbed for the spread of existentialism, with notable academics and professors integrating existentialist thinking into their teaching through a dispersion of curriculum and special lectures, which in turn allowed the movement to breach the rising generation through a wave of students. Although many other European philosophical movements spread to the United States by first passing through Britain and taking a more lengthy roundabout path, existentialism rapidly started influencing American intellectual circles directly from France, aided in part by technological advancements and the increase in accessibility and ease of communication post-war. In addition to courses and lecture series that were dedicated specifically to the explicit teaching of existentialism, existentialist ideas also began to find their way implicitly into the classroom through integrations with teaching philosophies. As early as 1952, academic groups started publishing papers on tying existentialism into the classroom: “Existentialism and Education,” “Significance of Existence and Recognition for Education” in 1955, the book “Existentialism and Education” in 1958, “Existentialism in Education: What it Means” in 1966, where only a select few among a wave of examining how takeaways from existentialist theory could be applied to influence way members of the younger generation were taught. While presentations of how to integrate existentialism into education varied as much as the diaspora of theories collected under the larger term of existentialism, the general focus of existentialism was, according to scholar Shu-li Wang, reflected in the core emphasis of many proposals: that the teacher’s role in a student’s education is cultivating a student who could wield a authentic and unique personality. This alignment with existentialism in educational pedagogies was a sign that the rising generation had the potential to grow to become more cognizant youth who would, in turn, teach and raise their own children through an existentialism-tinted lens.
In a more explicit sense, universities also began to incorporate study of existentialism into more formal courses, which cultivated and developed the higher education scene for engagement with existentialist ideas. Harvard University first introduced the course in the 1950s, Yale University in 1948, and other universities followed closely in suit the years following. The addition of existentialist courses in universities subsequently prompted the creation of groups such as the Society for Phenomenology and Existential Philosophy (SPEP), which originated from Harvard in the 1950s and later migrated to Northwestern University in 1962. The SPEP began holding meetings, situated first in the seminar room of Brentano Hall in Northwestern’s Department of Philosophy, which attracted undergraduate and graduate students with around 40 members attending the inaugural meeting and more with each following meeting. The society gatherings consisted of presentations which included topics ranging from phenomenology of perception to existential aesthetics and expressive meaning, oftentimes producing papers that would go on to be published in academic journals. Not only did groups like the SPEP foster an environment that was dedicated to the discussion of existentialist philosophies, it also further pushed existentialism into the mainstream. Today, nearly 70 years after its inaugural meeting, the Society for Phenomenology and Existential Philosophy has grown to a membership of over 2,500 members as one of the largest philosophical societies in North America. Starting at only a select group of universities, the study of existentialism spread like a wave. Yale University was one of the first institutions to begin incorporating the study in curriculum, driven by a personal interest in existentialism from faculty members like Henri Peyre, Sterling Professor of French Emeritus at Yale, who “wrote to Jean-Paul Sartre to ask him for an article on the first number, which will probably be devoted to Existentialism,” noting his inspiration for the course due in part to the inclusion of a similar course at Harvard. From institution to institution, interest in existentialism spread like wildfire, with Peyre noting in his letters to Sartre that the selling of his writings “was a success,” believing that it “will not only help the prestige of the magazine and our department” and that “the topic will interest and will sell the issue easily.” In universities such as Harvard and Yale, where existentialist studies made the first contact, the packed lecture halls and eager reception encouraged other universities to follow suit.
Although it originated from academic discourse, existentialism began to permeate wider American culture in the mid-1900s, with some ideas being introduced through major newspapers and outlets, while others started to find their way into popular media after influencing authors, filmmakers, and other creators. Sartre and Beauvoir’s efforts in publishing through fashion magazines garnered public attention, and their philosophies also gradually became paired with the emergence of existentialist ideas in American literature that would come to be highly regarded, acclaimed, and influence generations to come. Oftentimes, as authors themselves grappled with concepts like authenticity and freedom in their novels, ideas that were particularly relevant in mirroring the cultural shifts and thinking induced by World War II, their work would reflect existential themes that would pass ideas onto the reader. Even if the reader wasn’t aware that the questions and concepts could be contained into the term “existentialism,” or knowledgeable at all about the philosophical movement, they would oftentimes be able to grapple with existential ideas regardless, empowered by the accessibility of existentialist topics around identity and purpose. According to J’aimé Sanders, an aspect of literature that particularly appealed to post-World War II American readers was the contemplation of the “art of living,” which directly reflected existentialist ponderings on how to live authentically and freely. In pieces such as F. Scott Fitzgerald’s The Great Gatsby, Ernest Hemingway’s Death in the Afternoon, and Norman Mailer’s An American Dream, today all critically acclaimed pieces, the influences of several European philosophers—Friedrich Nietzsche, Soren Kierkegaard, and Martin Heidegger—can be found on these authors, on the structures and messages of their works. Fitzgerald, Hemingway, and Mailer’s emphasis on the individual’s personal responsibility to first become self-aware and then to strive to see the world more clearly and truly reflected their own sense of responsibility as authors and artists of their generations. Representatives of a much larger collection of authors, Fitzgerald, Hemingway, and Mailer themselves were immensely impactful as their works continue to be analyzed and regarded among the literature “classics” even today. Their work was influenced by existentialist philosophies, and their works carried the undertones of such: people who read their works or found themselves influenced by it oftentimes found themselves drawn to the larger existentialism movement.
Despite its influence and spreading popularity among the American public, existentialism faced pushback from many fronts, especially religious leaders who viewed existentialism’s push towards individual thinking and authenticity as a threat to loyalty to their institutions. Published on Dec 9, 1950, an issue of The Guardian, then named The Manchester Guardian, reported on a speech given by Pope Pius XII, warning those of Roman Catholic religious orders “against the dangers of existentialism ‘which makes (men) believe it is enough to take care of the present.’” The influx of existentialist ideology galvanized a departing wave of traditional views on how to live a good life, and also on religious structures like Catholicism. In the face of threats to the stability of their normal religious structures, figures at the heads of such organizations, such as the Pope, imparted words of discouragement, advising around three thousand Catholics of religious orders and congregations in addition to delegates of the Roman International Congress from thinking with existentialist values: “whoever professes the holy faith must refuse, even for one moment, to follow this trend of thought (existentialism) and to be thrown down the great river of life.” Within religious circles, existentialism posited a potential leave from God, alluding to scientific advancements and rational thinking as moving towards a different grounding of morality and the meaning of life.
Despite the opposition, however, existentialism persisted as a means of pondering meaning and how to live among both religious and non-religious alike. Circles of existential thought found their place among students and academics, but among commonplace people as well. The universality of existential pondering, of the questions of what and why we are who we are, of what our time spent should look like, is one that connects to all people. Reflected in media, in literature, in screenplays, films, plays, the principles of existentialism continue to impact America today, as much of the notably existential literature, media, and thinking remains relevant, continuing to shape the way we think about ourselves. In history, the strands of existentialist ponderings have ridden alongside military leaders as they marched into war, danced within the hearts of the grieving, the triumphant, the lost, and perched upon the shoulders of those that stare into the face of death. The pushback against what is traditional in favor of the pursuit of what we each individually find meaningful is perhaps the most notable of all existentialist thinking. Life is ours to make, to construct and shape—existentialism stands alongside all of us as we walk our everwinding journeys.
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Tianyi Evans Gu 